Inflammation
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Inflammation is an immediate response to foreign challenge and/or tissue injury characterized by local and transient extravasation of soluble molecules and leukocytes from the blood into non lymphoid tissues (LINK). While the physiologic purpose of inflammation is to restore homeostasis (LINK), there are many instances where this process becomes pathologic (LINK/LINK). Moreover, there is also a general consensus that some of the major causes of human morbidity and mortality worldwide (LINK) are in fact due to pathologic conditions in which inflammation and/or immunity act as the underlying cause of disease. Our laboratory aims at understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms assuring that in the overwhelming majority of the cases, inflammation and immunity exert their physiologic purpose without becoming pathologic. Our body of work supports the notion that one of such mechanisms relies on the expression of stress-responsive genes, allowing inflammation and immunity to progress without causing irreversible tissue damage. Our past work has focused to a large extent on a stress responsive gene encoding the enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1 encoded by the HMOX1 gene). Under inflammatory conditions HO-1 becomes the rate-limiting enzyme in the catabolism of free heme (LINK) into biliverdin (LINK), free iron and the gasotransmitter carbon monoxide (CO)(LINK/LINK). Free heme, that is, heme not bound to the heme pockets of hemoproteins, can be generated under a variety of inflammatory conditions promoting tissue damage and disease. HO-1 confers cytoprotection against heme presumably explaining why it exerts salutary effects against a broad spectrum of immune mediated inflammatory diseases (LINK). We have expanded the focus of our studies to stress-responsive pathways, other than HO-1, that should contribute critically to restrain the deleterious effects of inflammation and immunity. We are addressing this question experimentally using both genetic “loss of function” and “gain of function" approaches in different model organisms (i.e. Mice and Drosophila), targeting specifically master transcriptional regulators of stress-responsive pathways as to assess their involvement in the regulation of inflammation and immunity.
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- Heme Cytotoxicity and the Pathogenesis of Immune-Mediated Inflammatory DiseasesPublication . Larsen, Rasmus; Gouveia, Zélia; Soares, Miguel P.; Gozzelino, RaffaellaHeme, iron (Fe) protoporphyrin IX, functions as a prosthetic group in a range of hemoproteins essential to support life under aerobic conditions. The Fe contained within the prosthetic heme groups of these hemoproteins can catalyze the production of reactive oxygen species. Presumably for this reason, heme must be sequestered within those hemoproteins, thereby shielding the reactivity of its Fe-heme. However, under pathologic conditions associated with oxidative stress, some hemoproteins can release their prosthetic heme groups. While this heme is not necessarily damaging per se, it becomes highly cytotoxic in the presence of a range of inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor. This can lead to tissue damage and, as such, exacerbate the pathologic outcome of several immune-mediated inflammatory conditions. Presumably, targeting "free heme" may be used as a therapeutic intervention against these diseases.
- Regulation of Nuclear Factor κB (NF-κB) Transcriptional Activity via p65 Acetylation by the Chaperonin Containing TCP1 (CCT)Publication . Pejanovic, Nadja; Hochrainer, Karin; Liu, Tao; Aerne, Birgit L.; Soares, Miguel P.; Anrather, JosefThe NF-κB family member p65 is central to inflammation and immunity. The purpose of this study was to identify and characterize evolutionary conserved genes modulating p65 transcriptional activity. Using an RNAi screening approach, we identified chaperonin containing TCP1 subunit η (CCTη) as a regulator of Drosophila NF-κB proteins, Dorsal and Dorsal-related immunity factor (Dif). CCTη was also found to regulate NF-κB-driven transcription in mammalian cells, acting in a promoter-specific context, downstream of IκB kinase (IKK). CCTη knockdown repressed IκBα and CXCL2/MIP2 transcription during the early phase of NF-κB activation while impairing the termination of CCL5/RANTES and CXCL10/IP10 transcription. The latter effect was associated with increased DNA binding and reduced p65 acetylation, presumably by altering the activity of histone acetyltransferase CREB-binding protein (CBP). We identified p65 lysines (K) 122 and 123 as target residues mediating the CCTη-driven termination of NF-κB-dependent transcription. We propose that CCTη regulates NF-κB activity in a manner that resolves inflammation.
- Atherogenesis May Involve the Prooxidant and Proinflammatory Effects of Ferryl HemoglobinPublication . Potor, László; Bányai, Emese; Becs, Gergely; Soares, Miguel P.; Balla, György; Balla, József; Jeney, ViktóriaOxidized cell-free hemoglobin (Hb), including covalently cross-linked Hb multimers, is present in advanced atherosclerotic lesions. Oxidation of Hb produces methemoglobin (Fe(3+)) and ferryl hemoglobin (Fe(4+) = O(2-)). Ferryl iron is unstable and can return to the Fe(3+) state by reacting with specific amino acids of the globin chains. In these reactions globin radicals are produced followed by termination reactions yielding covalently cross-linked Hb multimers. Despite the evanescent nature of the ferryl state, herein we refer to this oxidized Hb as "ferryl Hb." Our aim in this work was to study formation and biological effects of ferrylHb. We demonstrate that ferrylHb, like metHb, can release its heme group, leading to sensitization of endothelial cells (ECs) to oxidant-mediated killing and to oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Furthermore, we observed that both oxidized LDL and lipids derived from human atherosclerotic lesions trigger Hb oxidation and subsequent production of covalently cross-linked ferrylHb multimers. Previously we showed that ferrylHb disrupts EC monolayer integrity and induces expression of inflammatory cell adhesion molecules. Here we show that when exposed to ferrylHb, EC monolayers exhibit increased permeability and enhanced monocyte adhesion. Taken together, interactions between cell-free Hb and atheroma lipids engage in a vicious cycle, amplifying oxidation of plaque lipids and Hb. These processes trigger EC activation and cytotoxicity.
- Heme catabolism by heme oxygenase-1 confers host resistance to Mycobacterium infectionPublication . Silva-Gomes, Sandro; Appelberg, Rui; Larsen, Rasmus; Soares, Miguel Parreira; Gomes, Maria SaloméHeme oxygenases (HO) catalyze the rate-limiting step of heme degradation. The cytoprotective action of the inducible HO-1 isoform, encoded by the Hmox1 gene, is required for host protection against systemic infections. Here we report that upregulation of HO-1 expression in macrophages (M) is strictly required for protection against mycobacterial infection in mice. HO-1-deficient (Hmox1(-/-)) mice are more susceptible to intravenous Mycobacterium avium infection, failing to mount a protective granulomatous response and developing higher pathogen loads, than infected wild-type (Hmox1(+/+)) controls. Furthermore, Hmox1(-/-) mice also develop higher pathogen loads and ultimately succumb when challenged with a low-dose aerosol infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The protective effect of HO-1 acts independently of adaptive immunity, as revealed in M. avium-infected Hmox1(-/-) versus Hmox1(+/+) SCID mice lacking mature B and T cells. In the absence of HO-1, heme accumulation acts as a cytotoxic pro-oxidant in infected M, an effect mimicked by exogenous heme administration to M. avium-infected wild-type M in vitro or to mice in vivo. In conclusion, HO-1 prevents the cytotoxic effect of heme in M, contributing critically to host resistance to Mycobacterium infection.
- The Microglial α7-Acetylcholine Nicotinic Receptor Is a Key Element in Promoting Neuroprotection by Inducing Heme Oxygenase-1viaNuclear Factor Erythroid-2-Related Factor 2Publication . Parada, Esther; Egea, Javier; Buendia, Izaskun; Negredo, Pilar; Cunha, Ana C.; Cardoso, Silvia; Soares, Miguel P.; López, Manuela G.We asked whether the neuroprotective effect of cholinergic microglial stimulation during an ischemic event acts via a mechanism involving the activation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and/or the expression of its target cytoprotective gene, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Specifically, the protective effect of the pharmacologic alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) agonist PNU282987 was analyzed in organotypic hippocampal cultures (OHCs) subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro as well as in photothrombotic stroke in vivo.
- The Genetic Basis of Escherichia coli Pathoadaptation to MacrophagesPublication . Miskinyte, Migla; Sousa, Ana; Ramiro, Ricardo S.; de Sousa, Jorge A. Moura; Kotlinowski, Jerzy; Caramalho, Iris; Magalhães, Sara; Soares, Miguel P.; Gordo, IsabelAntagonistic interactions are likely important driving forces of the evolutionary process underlying bacterial genome complexity and diversity. We hypothesized that the ability of evolved bacteria to escape specific components of host innate immunity, such as phagocytosis and killing by macrophages (MΦ), is a critical trait relevant in the acquisition of bacterial virulence. Here, we used a combination of experimental evolution, phenotypic characterization, genome sequencing and mathematical modeling to address how fast, and through how many adaptive steps, a commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) acquire this virulence trait. We show that when maintained in vitro under the selective pressure of host MΦ commensal E. coli can evolve, in less than 500 generations, virulent clones that escape phagocytosis and MΦ killing in vitro, while increasing their pathogenicity in vivo, as assessed in mice. This pathoadaptive process is driven by a mechanism involving the insertion of a single transposable element into the promoter region of the E. coli yrfF gene. Moreover, transposition of the IS186 element into the promoter of Lon gene, encoding an ATP-dependent serine protease, is likely to accelerate this pathoadaptive process. Competition between clones carrying distinct beneficial mutations dominates the dynamics of the pathoadaptive process, as suggested from a mathematical model, which reproduces the observed experimental dynamics of E. coli evolution towards virulence. In conclusion, we reveal a molecular mechanism explaining how a specific component of host innate immunity can modulate microbial evolution towards pathogenicity.
- Heme oxygenase-1 derived carbon monoxide permits maturation of myeloid cellsPublication . Wegiel, B; Hedblom, A; Li, M; Gallo, D; Csizmadia, E; Harris, C; Nemeth, Z; Zuckerbraun, B S; Soares, M; Persson, J L; Otterbein, L ECritical functions of the immune system are maintained by the ability of myeloid progenitors to differentiate and mature into macrophages. We hypothesized that the cytoprotective gas molecule carbon monoxide (CO), generated endogenously by heme oxygenases (HO), promotes differentiation of progenitors into functional macrophages. Deletion of HO-1, specifically in the myeloid lineage (Lyz-Cre:Hmox1(flfl)), attenuated the ability of myeloid progenitors to differentiate toward macrophages and decreased the expression of macrophage markers, CD14 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor (MCSFR). We showed that HO-1 and CO induced CD14 expression and efficiently increased expansion and differentiation of myeloid cells into macrophages. Further, CO sensitized myeloid cells to treatment with MCSF at low doses by increasing MCSFR expression, mediated partially through a PI3K-Akt-dependent mechanism. Exposure of mice to CO in a model of marginal bone marrow transplantation significantly improved donor myeloid cell engraftment efficiency, expansion and differentiation, which corresponded to increased serum levels of GM-CSF, IL-1α and MCP-1. Collectively, we conclude that HO-1 and CO in part are critical for myeloid cell differentiation. CO may prove to be a novel therapeutic agent to improve functional recovery of bone marrow cells in patients undergoing irradiation, chemotherapy and/or bone marrow transplantation.
- Control of Disease Tolerance to Malaria by Nitric Oxide and Carbon MonoxidePublication . Jeney, Viktória; Ramos, Susana; Bergman, Marie-Louise; Bechmann, Ingo; Tischer, Jasmin; Ferreira, Ana; Oliveira-Marques, Virginia; Janse, Chris J.; Rebelo, Sofia; Cardoso, Silvia; Soares, Miguel P.Nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) are gasotransmitters that suppress the development of severe forms of malaria associated with Plasmodium infection. Here, we addressed the mechanism underlying their protective effect against experimental cerebral malaria (ECM), a severe form of malaria that develops in Plasmodium-infected mice, which resembles, in many aspects, human cerebral malaria (CM). NO suppresses the pathogenesis of ECM via a mechanism involving (1) the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF-2), (2) induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and (3) CO production via heme catabolism by HO-1. The protection afforded by NO is associated with inhibition of CD4(+) T helper (TH) and CD8(+) cytotoxic (TC) T cell activation in response to Plasmodium infection via a mechanism involving HO-1 and CO. The protective effect of NO and CO is not associated with modulation of host pathogen load, suggesting that these gasotransmitters establish a crosstalk-conferring disease tolerance to Plasmodium infection.
- Tissue damage control in disease tolerancePublication . Soares, Miguel P; Gozzelino, Raffaella; Weis, SebastianImmune-driven resistance mechanisms are the prevailing host defense strategy against infection. By contrast, disease tolerance mechanisms limit disease severity by preventing tissue damage or ameliorating tissue function without interfering with pathogen load. We propose here that tissue damage control underlies many of the protective effects of disease tolerance. We explore the mechanisms of cellular adaptation that underlie tissue damage control in response to infection as well as sterile inflammation, integrating both stress and damage responses. Finally, we discuss the potential impact of targeting these mechanisms in the treatment of disease.
- Macrophages sense and kill bacteria through carbon monoxide-dependent inflammasome activationPublication . Wegiel, Barbara; Larsen, Rasmus; Gallo, David; Chin, Beek Yoke; Harris, Clair; Mannam, Praveen; Kaczmarek, Elzbieta; Lee, Patty J; Zuckerbraun, Brian S; Flavell, Richard; Soares, Miguel P; Otterbein, Leo EMicrobial clearance by eukaryotes relies on complex and coordinated processes that remain poorly understood. The gasotransmitter carbon monoxide (CO) is generated by the stress-responsive enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1, encoded by Hmox1), which is highly induced in macrophages in response to bacterial infection. HO-1 deficiency results in inadequate pathogen clearance, exaggerated tissue damage, and increased mortality. Here, we determined that macrophage-generated CO promotes ATP production and release by bacteria, which then activates the Nacht, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NALP3) inflammasome, intensifying bacterial killing. Bacterial killing defects in HO-1-deficient murine macrophages were restored by administration of CO. Moreover, increased CO levels enhanced the bacterial clearance capacity of human macrophages and WT murine macrophages. CO-dependent bacterial clearance required the NALP3 inflammasome, as CO did not increase bacterial killing in macrophages isolated from NALP3-deficient or caspase-1-deficient mice. IL-1β cleavage and secretion were impaired in HO-1-deficient macrophages, and CO-dependent processing of IL-1β required the presence of bacteria-derived ATP. We found that bacteria remained viable to generate and release ATP in response to CO. The ATP then bound to macrophage nucleotide P2 receptors, resulting in activation of the NALP3/IL-1β inflammasome to amplify bacterial phagocytosis by macrophages. Taken together, our results indicate that macrophage-derived CO permits efficient and coordinated regulation of the host innate response to invading microbes.
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